CBSE CLASS 12 CHAPTER 2 SELF AND PERSONALITY NCERT SOLUTIONS FOR BOARD EXAM 2025

CBSE CLASS 12 PSYCHOLOGY 
CH 2 SELF & PERSONALITY NCERT SOLUTIONS FOR BOARD EXAM 2025

NCERT Solutions Class XII for PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 2 SELF & PERSONALITY

Through this article, we share with you all the detailed NCERT Solutions of Class XII PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 2 SELF & PERSONALITY. This will contain both in-text and back-exercise questions for the subject with all exercise questions for other subjects. For all school and board-level examinations, doing all the NCERT Questions is very important.

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NCERT SOLUTIONS OF CH 2 SELF & PERSONALITY

Q1. What is self? How does the Indian notion of self-differ from the Western notion?

Ans. Self is an organized cognitive structure. It can be understood in terms of subject and object or I and Me. It refers to the totality of one's conscious thoughts and feelings which pertain to one's own self.

Indian Concept of Self

• Self is characterized by the shifting nature of the boundaries.
• No stiff dichotomies are formulated.
• It rests upon collectivist Indian society.

Western Concept of Self

• The lines which separate the self from a group are crisp.
• Very stiff dichotomy exists between the self and a group.
• This concept of the West rests upon an individualistic Western society.
  (Delhi board 2011, 2014)

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Q2. What is a delay of gratification? Why is the concept important in adult development?

Ans. (i) The process to delay or defer satisfaction of needs is known as self-control. It develops from self-regulation.

(ii) The self-regulation is the behavioral component of self.

(iii) It is the capacity to structure and regulate one's own behavior. The individuals who can alter their behavior based on the situation required by the external environment are high on self-monitoring.

(iv) Self-regulation causes development of self-control.

• It plays a crucial role in the accomplishment of long-term goals.
• Indian culture has provided us with effective mechanisms such as fasting (vrata or roza) and no attachment to worldly things to build self-control.
• It is one's capability to say 'No.'

Psychological techniques to build up self-control are:

(a) Observation of Own Behaviour: it gives us requisite information that may be made use of to change, alter, or strengthen some conceptualization of self.

(b) Self-instruction: We frequently instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want.

(c) Self-reinforcement: It involves rewarding behaviors that have pleasant outcomes (like going to see a movie with friends if we do well in exams).

Self-control leads to mature personality development. This is the reason that all cultures focus on self-control. It helps in the fulfillment of long-term goals. Indian cultural tradition provides us with certain effective mechanisms, e.g., fasting in vrata or roza and no attachment with worldly things for developing self-control. Self-control is also important for the effective functioning of the social network.

Q3. What is personality? What are the major approaches to the study of personality?

Ans. The word 'personality' is derived from the Latin word 'persona', which means a mask or false face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. According to Gordon Allport, "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment."

One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories:

1. Dynamic approaches, which emphasize ongoing interaction among motives, impulses, and psychological processes.
2. Type and trait approaches, which focus on people's characteristics, stubbornness, shyness, and so forth and how these characteristics are organized into systems.
3. Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual's subjective view of the world.
4. Learning and behavioral approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through the basic learning process.

Q4. What is the trait approach to personality? How does it differ from the type approach?

(CBSE 2007)

Ans. Trait approach psychologists explain personality on the basis of specific psychological characteristics.

Type approach psychologists believe that personality can be classified into broad categories.

• Traits are relatively stable, persistent, and characteristic patterns of behavior that make the individual different from others.
• Traits are overlapping, inclusive in nature.
• Traits are specific psychological characteristics, e.g., shy or timid.

Types are clusters of similar traits.

• These are broad categories.
• These do not overlap, i.e., exclusive in nature, e.g., extrovert or introvert.

Q5. Explain in detail how Freud explained the structure of personality?

Ans. The Id

• The Id is the primitive source of personality, existing in the newborn infant, out of which the ego and superego are later developed.
• It comprises everything inherited, including the instinctive drives—sex and aggression.
• It is largely related to the biological processes and offers the energy source (libido) for the functioning of all three systems.
• It is absolutely unconscious and acts on pleasure principles without any consideration for external possible costs of searching for the satisfaction of impulses.

The Ego

• The ego results from the Id due to the requirement of living in the real world. The function of the ego is to keep the Id at bay until it becomes possible to allow the gratification of its desires.
• It operates on reality principles. For instance, a hungry man would want to have food at all costs due to id impulses, but it is the ego that delays this hunger impulse until the right conditions are met.
• The ego is essentially the executive of the personality. It keeps a person working for a living, getting along with people, and generally adjusting to the realities of life.
• Ego acts as a mediator between the demands of the id, the realities of the world, and the demand of the superego.

The Superego

• It is connected with the values and morals of the society as taught to us by our parents and others. It functions according to social norms.
• It is concerned with morality—whether various ways that could satisfy id impulses are right or wrong.

The major functions of the superego are as follows:

1. It inhibits the unacceptable impulses of Id, such as sex and aggression.
2. Freud assumed that Id is energized by two instinctual forces, called life instinct and death instinct. Life instinct is an individual's tendency to construct, whereas death instinct is for destruction.
3. According to Freud, life instinct is more dominant among human beings. According to Freud, the instinctual life force that energizes the Id is called Libido.
4. It works on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification. It is the source of energy.

Q6. How would Horney's explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?

Ans. While Karen Horney focuses more on interpersonal relations during childhood, Alfred has given more emphasis on personal goals of an individual.

• In my view, Horney would attribute the cause of depression to relations between parents and children that are characterized by excessive interference or indifference. Deep anxiety would result from the behavior rewards the child, which if erratic, indifferent, and discouraging, feelings of isolation and helplessness will also emerge.
• Whereas, Depression according to Alfred Adler is because of the feeling of inadequacy and guilt appearing inside that individual due to his inability to gain his own personal objectives. Those senses of guilt provide an individual with security and are needed to conquer such feelings of inadequacy. If the individual cannot achieve the objectives and fails to overcome inferiority appropriately, then it leads to depression.

Q7. What is the central postulation of the humanistic approach to personality? What was Maslow meant when he said "self-actualization"?

(CBSE 2013, 2010)

Ans. Humanistic theories focus on individualistic responsibility and change tendencies towards development. They underpin the necessity of subjective states of mind of the people, attitudes, emotions, and beliefs specifically regarding the self.

• In this context, it is held in the humanistic approach that we humans are the most innovative, developing, fully functional, and self-actualizing personalities.
• They are according to Rogers' theory, fully functioning, psychologically healthy persons who live life to the fullest.
• They live in the here and now, have confidence in their own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs of others but they do not allow society's standards to shape their feelings or actions to an excessive degree.
• Rogers suggests that each person has a concept of ideal self. If there is a discrepancy between real self and ideal self, then the individual develops maladjustment.

Rogers propounded two basic assumptions:

(a) Human behavior is goal-directed and worthwhile.

(b) People always choose adaptive and self-actualizing behavior.

• Rogers believed that many individuals fail to become fully functioning persons because they grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard and develop distorted self-concepts which interfere with personal growth. Such people fail to self-actualize.
• All human beings desire unconditional positive regard, freedom of choice, and a feeling of fulfillment for attainment of self-actualization.
• Humanistic theories don't deny the importance of past experiences, but they generally focus on the present.

Maslow's Contribution to Humanistic Approach

Maslow's Self-Actualization:

• It is a state where people have reached their own fullest potential.
• He had an optimistic view of man who has potentialities for love, joy, and creative work.
• According to him, human beings are free to shape their lives and self-actualize.

**Q8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do

psychologists face when using observational methods?**

Ans. Observation is a key method used in studying human behavior. Psychologists observe people's behavior through both naturalistic and controlled environments.

9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests? (Delhi Board 2010 Part)

Ans. Structured personality tests are self-report measures that have the following features:

•Questions are direct and structured.

•They are called self-report because the examinee has to respond objectively to the items of the measure and his/her response are accepted as they are.

•They are objective in nature and they deal with the present state of mind.

— Self-report measures use inventories and questionnaires to assess conscious part of personality.

— Goal of the test may be revealed.

— These tests assess only conscious part of personality

•Their results depend on motivation and emotional state of the examinee; they are

non-projective and direct inferences are made. _

Some of the self-report measures are:

1.Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): This test was developed by Eysenck to assess two basic dimensions of personality namely introverted—extroversion and emotionally stable—emotionally unstable (Neuroticism).

2.MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. This test was developed by Hathaway and Mckinely.

•It has been found very effective in detecting psycho-pathology like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria etc.

•The test is divided into 10 sub scales. This test helps in clinical diagnosis of various mental disorders like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, etc.

•It has two sets’MMPI-I and MMPI-II. Now-a-days, MMPI-II is being used.

•It has 567 items in the form of affirmative statements. The subject judges each item ‘statements’ as true or false.

•MMPI is one of the very good tests for clinical purposes (diagnosis).

•Indian version of MMPI is also available named as Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) by Malik and Joshi.

16-PF Questionnaire (Delhi board 2010)

•It is developed by Cattell.

•It identifies large set of personality descriptions—subjected to factor analysis to identify basic personality structure.

•Subject responds to situation by choosing from alternatives.

•This test is being used with high school level students in India for career guidance

and counselling. ‘

Problems Faced by self-report Measures

•Social Desirability: It is a tendency on part of the respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable manner.

•Acquiescence: It is a tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions irrespective of contents.

•Testing and understanding personality require great skill and training.

•People become self-aware and conscious, hesitate to share thoughts and feelings and motivation. If they do it, it is done in a socially desirable manner. So, the real personality characteristics are not manifested.

10. State in common features of projective techniques. Describe anyone projective technique.

Or

Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists? (CBSE 2013, 2010, 2007)

Ans. •Projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists.

•Projective techniques are most indirect method to assess personality.

•Psycho analytic theory proposed that behaviour is also determined by unconscious forces.

•The projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings.

— The stimulus material is relative or fully unstructured and poorly defined.

— The person being assessed is usually not told the purpose and the method of scoring and interpretation before the administration of test. — The person is informed that there are no right or wrong responses.

— Each response is considered to reveal a true and significant aspect of personality.

— The scoring and interpretation in projective assessment are lengthy and subjective.

Projective Techniques

— Developed to assess unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts.

— A less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project his/her feelings, desires and needs on to that situation,

— Projections are interpreted by experts.

— Cannot be scored objectively, require qualitative analysis for which a rigorous training is needed.

1.The Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach)

•Consists of 10 inkblots—5 black and white, 2 with red ink, 3 in pastel colours.

•Blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form, made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test).

•The cards are administered individually in two phases:

—Performance proper: The subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them.

—Inquiry: A detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made.

•Fine judgment is necessary to place the subject’s responses in a meaningful context. Use and interpretation of this test requires extensive training

2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Morgan and Murray

•This test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card—each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations.

• Some cards are used specifically with adult males or females, boys or girls—have been modified for the children and the aged.

•The cards are presented one at a time and the subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture—what led up to the situation, what is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, what the characters are feeling and thinking?

•Uma Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is also available.

3.Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)

• This study assesses how people express aggression in the face of a frustrating situation.

•Presents with the help of cartoon-like pictures a series of situations in which one person frustrates another, or calls attention to a frustrating condition.

•The subject is asked to tell what the other (frustrated) person will say or do.

•The analysis of responses is based on the type and direction of aggression—examine whether the focus is on the frustrating object (environment), or on protection of the frustrated person (oneself), or on constructive solution of the problem.

•Pareek has adapted this test for the Indian population

4. Sentence Completion Test

•This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences—the starting part of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence.

•The type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts.

•The test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations.

5. Draw-a-Person Test

•In this test, the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper and then a figure of an opposite sex person.

•Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if he/she was a character in a novel or play.

•Some examples of interpretations are as follows:

— Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships.

— Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses.

— Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and pre-occupation with headaches. ..

Limitations

•Interpretation of the responses requires sophisticated skills and specialized training.

•There are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of interpretations.

11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.

Ans. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. His family ‘claims’ to love him, but disapproves of his choice of career.

This fact warrants my attention towards an important terminology given by Carl Rogers, i.e., unconditional positive regard.

As the desire of Arihant to become a singer is contradicted by his family, it results in a situation of negative social conditions which will reduce his level of self-concept and self¬esteem.

His inability to fulfil his goal will prevent him from becoming a ‘fully functioning person’. Moreover, his conception of an ‘ideal self involves him being a singer, while his ‘real self is not one due to familial pressure. This discrepancy between the real and ideal self results in dissatisfaction and unhappiness.

The provision of unconditional positive regard which includes empathy, love and warmth irrespective of other factors is necessary for Arihant.

According to Rogers, a person attains self-actualization only when people have reached their own fullest potential.

His inability to pursue singing will not allow self-actualization to occur which will prevent his psychological health and well-being.

Locus of control affects an individual's coping strategies, decision-making, and overall approach to life.

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NCERT Questions and Answers not only strengthen your grasp of concepts and improve your understanding but also form the basis of all kinds of exam questions. The types of questions asked in exams are generally similar to those found in the NCERT. In fact, on some occasions, the questions from NCERT are asked in exams exactly as they appear, without any modifications.

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