Environment and Natural Resources NCERT Political science CBSE class 12 Notes Humanitas

CBSE Class 12 Political Science NCERT Chapter Notes for Environment and Natural Resources Humanitas

The world is at crossroads facing unprecedented environmental challenges that demand immediate attention. Dwindling farmlands and overpopulated ecosystems to climate change makes it mandatory to dive deep and explore how these concerns are addressed through treatise, international diplomacy, grassroot movements and global politics that shape our response to these crises. This chapter provides an insight into shared responsibilities, resource geopolitics and aspiration of indigenous communities. As we navigate the complexities of global politics, this chapter reveals a ground-breaking paradigm, one that seamlessly merged ecological imperatives with traditional geopolitical considerations. 

Current environmental issues

Gone are the days when global politics was solely focussed on war, treatise and state authority. Today, there are more pressing issues that needs immediate action, namely poverty, disease and environmental degradation. With time, the world has come to the realisation ghat government alone cannot solve these problems alone, but require a collective efforts from the nations, organisations and individual. 

World is facing unprecedented environmental threats, which forces us to raise the question, how does the world politics address these issues?

• We are experiencing a growing crisis. Farmland is scarce, and soil fertility is declining. Overgrazing and overfishing is threatening grassland and fisheries. 
• According to the 2006 UNDP Human Development Report, 1.2 billion poor people lack safe drinking water and 2.6 billion lack sanitation. This kills nearly 3 million children annually.
• The abandonment of natural forests, which plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance, has severe consequences for biodiversity conservation. The destruction of species-rich habitats exacerbated the decline of global biodiversity. 
• Stratospheric ozone depletion continues to devastate ecosystems and human health. 
• The coastal pollution driven primarily by terrestrial pollution, degrades marine environments and puts the livelihood of coastal communities at risk. 
• The fight against environmental damage has become a global battlefield. As governments take action, they must navigate the intricate web of ‘global politics’. 

Therefore the environmental and resource issues are political, and raises questions like:

• Who degrades the environment?
• Who pays? Who is responsible for correction?
•  Who gets how much of Earth's natural resources?

Earth summit

In the 1960s, environmental issues began to take the center stage in global politics. 

• The global think tank, The Club of Rome’s 1972 publication, "Limits to Growth,” gave a wake up call to the world suggesting that unchecked population growth would inevitably lead to resource depletion.
• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other international groups organised conferences and funded studies to find solutions. 
• A pivotal moment in environmental history came in 1987 with the Brundtland Report, “Our Common Future” which emphasized the need for sustainable development, highlighting the tension between economic growth and environmental protection. 
• Five years later, in 1992 an Earth summit in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil brought together an unprecedented 170 nations, thousands of NGOs and international businesses to address the pressing environmental issues that now dominate the global agenda. 
• However the conference revealed stark divide in environmental priorities between the "global North" (developed nations) and the "global South" (developing nations)
• These divergent priorities between the Southern and Northern states highlighted that the former emphasized economic growth and environmental management, whereas the latter focussed on ozone layer depletion and global warming. 
• The summit resulted in  treatises on climate change, biodiversity and forestry as well as the “Agenda 21” development principles. But deep-seated disputes remained. 
• This leads to the question: what did ‘sustainable development’ really mean? And how could it be achieved? 

One common ground of acceptance among the countries has been, balancing economic growth and environmental protection is paramount. The concept of sustainable development has gained prominence but its operationalisation continues to pose considerable challenges. Critics argue that Agenda 21 tipped the scales in favour of economic growth, compromising environmental protection. 

Protection of global commons

'Global Commons’

• Commons are community resources/ shared resources that benefit everyone. But there are some areas that are not under any single nation like the high sea and space. It becomes the responsibility of the international community to protect these global treasures. 
• The global commons like Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor and space, belong to all humanity, making it a global responsibility. 
• Some groundbreaking treatises like The 1959 Antarctic Treaty, 1987 Montreal Protocol, and 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol proves that environmental cooperation can drive real change. 
• Given the different priorities of every nation, unclear scientific facts and conflicting timelines can hinder progress and make it tough to bring all the nations on the same page. However, the discovery of the Ozone hole in the mid 1980s, highlighted the stakes of global environmental issues, thereby pushing towards collective action. 
• The history of outer space as a global commons shows that management differences have major impacts.
• Like the earth's atmosphere and ocean floor, technical progress and industrial growth dominate here. Space operations benefit today's and future generations differently.

Differentiated but Shared Responsibilities 

• As stated earlier, The north and the south have distinct approaches to environmental issues. North advocates for global environmental protection. 
• The south, on the other hand, argued that industrialised nations’ activities harm the environment more and should take greater responsibility. 
• If the wealthier nations did more damage then they should fix it. Global south and global north shouldn't be subjected to the same rules and responsibilities. Thus International environment laws must consider these unique needs of developing nations. 
• The 1992 Rio Declaration took these unique demands into consideration and supported shared but different responsibilities. 
• The relevant Rio Declaration states, "States shall work together in the spirit of global partnership to preserve, protect, and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystems.”
• This declaration emphasized on global partnership to preserve and protect the Earth's ecosystem. 
• The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) further laid down the shared but different responsibilities and held industrialized nations responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions, thereby emphasizing greater sustainable development by the global North. 
• It also stressed that the emerging countries' per-person emissions are still low. Therefore countries like India, China and other developing nations are exempted from kyoto protocol requirements. 

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol mandates developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons is aggravating Global warming which is threatening life on earth. Kyoto, Japan's 1997 protocol was based on UNFCCC principles, which aims to mitigate climate change. 

Common property resources 

A world where people from around the world come together to manage and protect natural resources might seem utopic but it isn't. Here comes the Common Property Resources (CPRs). 

• Common Property Resources are those resources which are shared assets with members having defined rights and responsibilities. For example water bodies, grazing lands and forests. 
• These CPRs have been prevalent in India over centuries. These systems are dependent on mutual understanding, social norms and collective decision making. 
• However threats to these CPRs have risen in the form of privatization, agricultural intensification, and population growth. 
• The world is noticing decreased availability, size and quality of CPRs. 
• State-owned forest land sacred grove management is a common property regime.
• South India's forest belt villages have managed sacred groves.

India's Environmental Policy

India's stance on the Kyoto Protocol has been simple yet powerful, which is shared but differentiated responsibility. 

• India signed the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and ratified it in 2002. 
• India, as a developing country, wasn't required to meet specific emission reduction targets under the protocol. This was because the countries like India and China had relatively lower greenhouse gas emissions during their industrialisation phase. 
• However, the opponents of the Kyoto Protocol argue the possibility of India and China becoming significant contributors to global emissions in the future. 
• India at the G-8 meeting in 2005 has tried to counter this argument by a compelling fact that developing countries have a much lower per capita carbon footprint compared to developed nations.
• India continues to call for equity and climate justice and urged the developed countries to take the lead in reducing emissions. 
• India negotiates internationally using UNFCCC historical responsibility principles.
•  India has raised concerns over the UNFCCC talks which are rooted in the fact that developed countries are pushing for emission reductions in fast-industrialising nations like Brazil, China and India. India believes that this approach violates the principle of UNFCCC, which prioritises economic and social development for developing countries. 
• It is important to note that India's per-capita carbon emissions are relatively low, expected to rise from 0.9 tonnes in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes in 2030. In contrast, the global average is projected to be 3.8 tonnes by 2030. Limiting India's emissions can seriously hinder its economic development and energy access for its citizens. 
• Despite these concerns, India has been proactive in reducing its carbon footprint through various programmes and policies. 
• For example, The National Auto-fuel Policy promotes cleaner fuels, Energy Conservation Act of 2001, outlines measures to reduce energy consumptions, 2003 Electricity Act promotes energy renewable sources.
• In recent years India has been promoting clean coal technologies and has been importing natural gas to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. 
• India has one of the world's largest renewable energy programmes.
• Since 1997, India has been actively reviewing implementation of the Rio Earth Summit, and has called on the developed nations to provide more financial and technological assistance to developing nations to meet UNFCCC commitments. 
• India also suggests that SAARC nations should collaborate to strengthen their collective voice on global environmental issues. 

Are there multiple movements? 

• Governmental actions alone cannot effectively address environmental issues. An Inclusive effort is needed. This realisation has led to environmental volunteers worldwide to develop innovative solutions. They have led a number of movements which are active, diverse, and powerful driving change through grassroot engagement and efforts. 
• These new social movements offer fresh perspectives and create new political methods. They aim at sustained actions, long term goals and community engagement. 
• For example, Southern Hemisphere Forest Movements, its activists in Mexico, Brazil, Indonesia, Africa, Chile and India fights to preserve forests. 
• Anti-mega dam movements oppose large scale dam projects, citing environmental concerns. For example Australia’s Franklin River campaign and India's Narmada bachao andolan. 
• The entry of MNCs in developing economies like India through globalisation has intensified environmental pressures. The mineral industry, in particular, poses significant environmental challenges. Therefore the role of volunteers and environmental movements become crucial. 

Resource Geopolitics 

In a world where natural resources are scattered unevenly, resource geopolitics comes into play. But what is resource Geopolitics? Resource Geopolitics can be understood as a study of resource distribution among nations. In simple words it determines who gets what, when, where and how? 

• Resource Geopolitics becomes important as resources have long been a key factor in global power dynamics. Europe’s ascendency to global dominance can be associated with its access to resources which also sparked international conflicts. 
• In the 17th century, Western powers prioritised securing resources, particularly wood for naval supremacy, and to maintain their dominance. These resources played a crucial role in both world wars, shaping the history of global conflicts. 
• During the Cold War Era, the industrialised north ensured its access to vital resources through various tactics. 
• These tactics involved stationing military forces near extraction sites and communication corridors, gathering strategic resources and developing friendly governments in producing countries through agreements. 
• Even in the post-cold war era, relations and agreements between nations prioritise mineral supply security particularly for radioactive materials. For example, the Gulf of Mexico oil, Southern and central africa continues to remain crucial to western interests. 

The global players lays enduring importance to Oil. 

• In the 20th century, oil was seen as the dominant Energy source, vital for economic growth and development. 
• This importance sparked intense political battles over its control with west and central Asia being key battlegrounds. 
• The significance can be understood through these numbers. 
• The gulf produces 30 percent of the world's oil and controls 64 percent of global oil reserves. Saudi Arabia holds almost 25 percent of global oil reserves. Iraq has the second largest oil reserve, and its potential remains unknown to this day due to limited exploration. 
• Countries like Japan, Europe, USA, China and India rely heavily on oil imports to fuel their economies. 

This uneven concentration of oil reserves in a few regions creates energy security concerns, sparking debates and conflicts

Water, a precious resource, essential for survival, has also become a focal point of international conflict. The scarcity of fresh water has sparked debates and tensions, creating disagreement between nations till this day. 

• We are witnessing the looming threat of “water wars”, a term coined by international commentators to describe the possibility of violent conflict over vital resources. 
• Living in an interconnected world, disagreements are inevitable. When nations share a river, the upstream and downstream states often clash over issues like pollution, over -irrigation, contamination, etc. 
• This struggle for freshwater resources has led to a history of conflict. For example Israel, Syria and Jordan competed for Jordan and Yarmuk river water in the 1950s and 1960s. Turkey, Syria and Iraq threatening to build Euphrates river dams sparking tensions. 

Water-Sharing has become a global problem. Studies have shown that river-sharing nations are more likely to engage in military conflicts over Water resources. The world continues to face the challenge of freshwater scarcity, thereby implying that water will play an increasingly important role in shaping global politics and international relations. 

Indigenous Rights 

Indigenous people have lived in harmony with nature for thousands of years. These indigenous people possess a unique cultural identity, and close connection with nature.

 But who are these indigenous people?

The UN describes Indigenous populations as the descendants of people who inhabited a country's territory before colonization. They seek to protect their own social, economic and cultural traditions. However, in the globalising world, these indigenous people's voices remain unheard, and they continue to face environmental, resources and political issues. 

What do the world's 30 million indigenous peoples including India's share?

• Indigenous communities have a global presence and can be found in central and south America, Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Oceania including Australia and New Zealand. 
• 20 million native Filipinos live in the Cordillera region, 10 million Mapuche in Chile, 6 million tribal people in Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh, 35 million North Americans, 50,000 Kuna east of the Panama Canal, and 10 million Small Peoples in the Soviet North.
• Despite their geographic diversity, these indigenous people have a shared history and struggle. They demand recognition as equals, with rights to their ancestral lands, culture and identities. 
• Through relentless efforts, they were successful in establishing The World Council Of Indigenous Peoples in 1975, as a platform of unified voice for indigenous people to be heard globally. 
• It was the first indigenous NGO to receive UN consultative status, thereby paving the way for greater international recognition and cooperation.

As we move forward, the recognition of these indigenous voices becomes important. We need to acknowledge the historical injustices towards them, and work towards creating a future where their rights, culture and identities are respected.

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