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End of Bipolarity Notes Chapter 1 Political science Class 12 Humanitas

Class 12 Contemporary World Politics (political science) Chapter Notes End of Bipolarity
16 April 2025 by
Akash Kumar

End of Bipolarity Notes Chapter 1 Political science Class 12

Class 12 Contemporary World Politics (political science) Chapter Notes End of Bipolarity 

Introduction

A nation that has experienced its rise through revolution, became one of the world's most powerful empires, and then crumbled under the weight of its own contradiction. This chapter will delve deep into the Soviet Union’s history marked with its rise and fall, presenting before us a fascinating tale of how it defied odds as a superpower, inspired generations and then crumbled down. The Soviet Union's history serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of balancing economic development with individual freedoms, social justice and democratic participation. The chapter also highlights the influences of shock therapy and the Arab Spring on world politics.


The Emergence of the USSR as a Superpower

The year 1917, marked a pivotal moment in modern history, as the socialist revolution swept across Russia, leaving in its wake a transformed nation and a new political entity: the Soviet Union. This seismic event was deeply rooted into the principles of socialism, which aimed to create a society which is just and equitable and free from the exploitations of capitalism. 

Why was the USSR powerful?

Within no time, the USSR was able to gain its superpower status given several factors like its economic, technological, and geopolitical strength. 

  • The USSR's economy, as a behemoth of industrial might, was able to surpass many nations, acting as a rival of the US. 
  • This economic advancement allowed the USSR to build a vast communication network, which enhanced its connectivity and efficiency.
  • Additionally, the USSR possessed abundant energy resources, including significant reserves of oil, iron, and steel. 
  • A well developed transport sector connected the vast nation facilitating trade and commerce. 
  • A thriving domestic industry produced a wide range of goods from basic necessities like pins to the complex ones like automobiles, adding to the economic growth of the nation. 
  • Moreover, the Soviet state prioritised social welfare, ensuring a minimum standard of living for all its citizens. This focus on social welfare allowed the citizens to enjoy essential necessities like healthcare, education and  sanitation, thereby contributing to social stability and overall well- being of the citizens.
  • Moreover, unemployment was absent in the USSR, which further solidified its economic strength. 

Limitations of the Soviet System

However, beneath its attractive economic strength and geopolitical might, the Soviet system concealed a web of limitations, which gradually eroded the system's stability and set the stage for its own collapse in the coming years. 

  • The system was marked with centralised, bureaucratic and authoritarian structure, with a rigid, top down decision making thereby stifling creativity and innovation. 
  • The absence of democracy and freedom of speech created a government unresponsive to the needs and aspirations of the people breeding discontent.
  • Moreover, the  communist party’s denial of autonomy to diverse ethnic and cultural groups and ignorance of demand for self-government created disillusionment and internal tensions which ultimately led to the country's collapse. 
  • Suppression of unique identities of different republics under the Soviet Union's rule created discontent and resistance and a deep sense of loss among the marginalized communities. 
  • Additionally, to win the arms race with the US, USSR diverted a huge amount of resources for military endeavors, diverting vital resources from critical areas like technology, infrastructure and social welfare ultimately undermining the nations long-term prosperity. 
  • Soviet’s decision to invade Afghanistan proved to be a costly and disastrous misadventure, eroding systems credibility and exacerbating dissatisfaction among both domestic and international stakeholders.
  • Despite the absence of unemployment, the soviet system was characterised by stagnant productivity, outdated technology  and persistent shortage of consumer goods showcasing the inefficiencies of the system.

Reforms by Gorbachev & ideologies

To breathe a new life to the deteriorating Soviet system, a visionary leader Mikhail Gorbachev, as a general secretary of Communist Party in 1985, unleashed a revolutionary wave of reforms, namely Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness).   

Through these reforms, Gorbachev aimed to shatter the Soviet Union's reputation of secrecy and repression, instead embracing transparency, political openness and economic revitalisation. He extended these bold initiatives to foreign policy and aimed to pursue a path of normalisation with the western world. 

Opposition and Consequences of Reforms

However these reforms backfired and presented a number of challenges before the already crumbling nation. 

  • As the Soviet's control over the east European countries started to loosen, people in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia started to protest against the government. 
  • However in departure from previous practices, the Soviet Union refrained from intervening to stop these demonstrations. Instead it stood back and watched the communist regime crumble down. 
  • The Soviet economy, under the period of crises, couldn't take the burden of these reforms which accelerated the disintegration process. 
  • Dissatisfied with the reforms, internal opposition within the Communist Party rose, which led to a coup attempt in 1991 by Communist Party hardliners.
  • The 1991 coup acted as a real game changer. People were fed up with the system and wanted freedom and new leadership. This desire was met with the rise of Boris Yeltstin as a hero, standing up against the coup and becoming the national icon. 
  • As the Soviet system lost its grip, the shift was witnessed from centralised Soviet to individual republics in the European part of Soviet Union. 
  • Ultimately, Russia, Ukraine and Belarus officially announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, along with the ban of communist party. 

Consequences of Disintegration

The collapse of the Soviet Union triggered shock waves around the globe ushering in a new era of international politics. 

  • The first change that the world noticed was the end of the cold war. The ideological rivalry between socialism and capitalism, finally came to an end marking a significant turning point. 
  • Secondly, power dynamics in world politics underwent a transformation. The US emerged as a hegemon and a leading global power, thereby popularising liberal democracy as an alternative to socialist governance. 
  • Thirdly, with the breakup of the USSR, the world saw the rise of new nations. These new nations sought shelter under western institutions like NATO, or countries like the US and China. 

Shock Therapy

As Post-Communist countries shifted from authoritarian socialism to democratic capitalism, the IMF and World Bank played a major role in influencing this transition through their policies. This transformation was marked with certain features, which are as follows. 

  • A pragmatic shift was noticed among the post-communist countries from socialist to capitalist economic systems. 
  • In these countries, private ownership became a norm and government owned assets were sold off to create privately owned companies. 
  • Focus was now shifted from growth to development with the aim to increase trade and commerce. 
  • Collective farming was replaced by private farming. 
  • Free trade was a big part of the plan, to allow easy integration of eastern European economies with the global market. 
  • Moreover, to attract foreign investment and boost trade, countries made their currencies convertible, and introduced market-oriented measures. 
  • The earlier trade alliances under the Soviet regime with the countries were dismantled. Each country formed its new link with western Nations. 
  • To help this transition from socialism to capitalism, the Western capitalist states assumed leadership roles. 

Consequences of Shock Therapy

The shock-therapy had its own profound impact on the post Communist countries. Its implementation had a direct direct impact on the economies and societies plunging millions into poverty and uncertainty.  Several notable outcomes include:

  • Economic Ruin and Disasters: shock therapy wreaked havoc on the economy creating distress across the region. The sudden shift from socialism to capitalism led to major disruption, leaving people struggling with economic instability and hardship. 
  • Industrial collapse in Russia: Russia's state-owned industries fell apart. 90 percent of them were sold off to private companies. This led to disposal of valuable industrial assets at significantly discounted prices, earning the status of the "largest garage sale in history.”
  • Currency Depreciation and Inflation: The country suffered from the devaluation of the Russian currency Rouble, which caused a sharp decline in the purchasing power of the citizens. The rise of inflation eroded people's savings affecting financial stability. 
  • Food insecurity and Poverty: the government withdrew subsidies, making it difficult for the people to afford basic necessities. Collective farming also disintegrated creating food insecurity for the population. 
  • Emergence of Mafia and Inequality: The shock therapy policies contributed to the emergence of organized crime, particularly in Russia. Economic inequality reached alarming levels as the divide between the rich and the poor widened significantly.

Establishment of Political Structure in Post-Soviet Nations 

After the disintegration, setting up new political systems in the Post-Soviet countries was like an ordeal and a challenging endeavour. These political structures was marked with several significant features, which includes:

  • Lack of democratic Institutions: In the rush to adopt capitalism, many Post-Communist countries struggled to build strong democratic institutions. The countries engaged themselves in hasty constitution making, which resulted into creation of nations marked with strong executive presidencies with extensive power, with a little to no authority of elected parliaments. 
  • Authoritarianism and weak Parliaments: with the rise of dissent and opposition in newly established nations, some leaders in Central Asian Countries adopted authoritarian practices. These nations failed to provide independent judiciary and judicial culture to the citizens, further weakening the democratic foundation of these nations. 

However, some Post-Soviet countries were able to ensure their revival through the increased natural resource exports. These countries benefited with the export of natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals. Moreover they were able to generate rental income through the oil pipelines that passed through their territories. 

The Arab Spring

A pivotal moment for democracy in West Asia began. The Arab Spring which began in Tunisia in 2010 set off the chain of protest, uprising and demand for reforms that would change the face of the region. 

  • The Arab Spring was a major turning point for democracy in West Asia, marking a shift towards more democratic government in the region. 
  • Starting in 2010 in Tunisia, this Arab Spring was seen as a response to the series of corruption, unemployment and poverty in the region. 
  • People believed that an autocratic dictatorship was responsible for their miserable living conditions. This belief ignited public struggle against these challenges in the form of political movement. 
  • The repercussions of any event invariably transcend geographical boundaries. The demand for democracy that originated in Tunisia, soon spread to the Muslim dominated Arab nations in West Asian regions. 
  • The demand for democracy brought an end to long-standing Autocrats like Hosni Mubarak who held power in Egypt since 1979. 
  • The effect of the uprising was soon noticed in other areas as well. Similar events and uprising were now noticed in other countries like Yemen, Bahrain, Libya, and Syria. 

The protest sparked a democratic movement that swept across West Asia, inspiring calls for freedom and reforms. 

Tensions and Conflict Among the Post-Communist Countries

As communism’s grip relaxed, the Post-communist countries were faced with multifaceted tensions and conflicts deriving from various socio, political, economic and cultural sources. 

  • Secessionist Movements: Russia saw the rise of Secessionist Movements in republics like Chechnya and Dagestan. Moscow was accused of using military methods and actions which directly violated human rights. 
  • Civil wars and Regional Conflicts: several regions within the country faced civil wars. For example, Tajikistan witnessed a decade-long civil war. Moreover Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan) started demanding for independent statehood from Georgia, which eventually led to conflicts. 
  • Ethnic and Territorial Disputes: water disputes were witnessed between Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan and Georgia. Chechoslivakia was able to ensure a peaceful split into Czech and slovak. But Yugoslavia suffered a civil war because of NATO intervention. 

India and the USSR

Against the backdrop of cold war, India and USSR forged an unbreakable bond, united by shared values and mutual commitment to cooperation and support. 

  • Aid to Public Sector Companies: Soviet Union has been at forefront since the beginning to help India and provide assistance to India's public sector enterprises. It provided aid in the establishment of major steel plants like Bhilai, Bokaro and Visakhapatnam. 
  • Support on Kashmir Issue: Having faced threat in Kashmir from all sides, Soviet Union offered unwavering support to India on Kashmir issue, reinforcing India's diplomatic stance. 
  • Military Hardware: During the prevailing global reluctance to share cutting edge military technology, India augmented its defence capabilities through substantial Soviet assistance. 
  • Cultural Exchange: Hindi movies and Indian culture were all the rage in the Soviet Union, showing how strong the cultural ties were between the two nations. Many Indian artists and writers visited the USSR sharing ideas and inspirations. 

India and Post-Communist Countries

After the disintegration, India was able to maintain positive relations with Post-Communist countries along with maintaining strong ties with Russia. 

  • India was able to extend its cultural influence to Russia and post-soviet nations. 
  • Moreover, India and Russia shared a common vision of multipolar world order, supporting multiple powers, collective security and negotiated conflict resolutions.
  • A series of Bilateral Agreements were signed between India and Russia in the defence cooperation, which made India one of Russia's major arms markets. 
  • India also aimed to increase its energy imports from Russia and other republics to enhance its energy security. 

India and Russia developed Nuclear and space cooperation, demonstrating strong collaboration between the two nations.

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